பொருள்

Formation of INC: 1st Session of INC           The Indian National Congress (INC) was formed in 1885, marking a significant milestone in India's struggle for independence from British rule. The foundation of INC was initiated by A.O.Hume , a retired British civil servant, who aimed to create a platform for civil and political dialogue among educated Indians.             The first session of the INC was held in Bombay (now Mumbai) and was attended by 72 delegates. The formation of the INC played a crucial role in unifying diverse regional and political groups, eventually leading to the broader national movement against British colonialism. INC Sessions: Year Place President 1st Session, 1885 Bombay Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee 2nd Session, 1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji 3rd Session, 1887 Madra...

 What is VFI? The Union Government is endowed with more Tax powers than the states, while the states are assigned more expenditures responsibilities than Union government. This leads to VFI between states and union. The main responsibility of finance commission (A-280) is to correct this. Understanding VFI: An empirical measure of VFI is "VFI=1-Ratio of states own revenue to own expenditure". If VFI ratio is zero, then states have enough to meet their expenditure.  A look over past 3 finance commissions shows there is an increase in trend. The ratio was 0.530 which means only 43% of states own revenue was financed by themselves. Solution proposed by Experts: Reassigning tax powers between union and states: The union government has exclusive power to levy excise duty and states have exclusive power to levy excise duty, sales tax on liquor. All other commodities fall under GST. Experts propose that CGST and excise duty on petro products be assigned to states. Veto powers of uni...

WHAT IS MODEL PRISON MANUAL?   Model Prison Manual, 2016 is a set of guidelines developed by Ministry of Home Affairs. It covers about prisoner classification and  privileges, disciplinary action and complaints procedures, sanitary and hygiene regulations, etc., Related Articles: Article 39 (a) Fair justice also deals with prisoners. Article 14,19,20,21 and 22 deal with Rights of prisoners. WHY TO READ? The union Home ministry has asked the states of Union Territories who have not adopted Model Prison Manual so far, to bring in accordance with guidelines provided by Manual.  Prison is a state subject.

 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES (C) REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS: 4.The Gliding Frog (Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus) The Gliding Frog The Gliding Frog (Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus) is endemic to the Western Ghats. This species is confined to the rain forests of the Western Ghats and occurs at elevations of greater than 1000m. This species has been recently described in the year 2000. CONSERVATION STATUS: Critically Endangered. HABITAT: Rainforests above 1000m altitude. DISTRIBUTION: Indira Gandhi National Park and surrounding areas of Anamalai hills, Tamil Nadu. THREATS: Conversion of forested areas for timber and non-timber plantations, and timber extraction activities. ALSO READ: Four-toed River Terrapin

 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES (C) REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS  3. Four-toed River Terrapin or River Terrapin (Batagur baska) Four-toed River Terrapin Four-toed river terrapin or Northern River terrapin (Batagur baska) is a critically endangered turtle. The omnivorous diet of the river terrapin and other terrapin species, makes them an essential part of the effi cient clean-up systems of aquatic habitats. CONSERVATION STATUS: Critically Endangered. HABITAT: Freshwater rivers and lakes. DISTRIBUTION: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia. THREATS: Use of flesh for medicinal purposes, demand for eggs, which are considered a delicacy. ALSO READ: Leatherback turtles.

 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES (C) REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS: 2. Leatherback Turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) Leatherback Turtles Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) are the largest of living sea turtles weighing as much as 900 kg. Adult leatherback turtles are excellent swimmers – they swim on an average of 45-65 km a day, travel upto 15,000 km per year and can dive as deep as 1200 m. Jelly fish are their primary prey. The population spikes of leatherbacks coincide with abundance of jelly fish, making them important top-predators in marine environments. CONSERVATION STATUS: Critically Endangered HABITAT: Tropical and subtropical oceans. DISTRIBUTION: Found in tropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. THREATS: High sea fi shing operations, harvesting of eggs, destruction of nests by wild species and domesticated species such as cats, dogs and pigs. Artifi cial lighting disorients hatchlings and adult and causes them to migrate inland rather th...

 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES (C) REPTILES AND MAMMALS: 1. The Gharial  The Gharial The Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) is the most uniquely evolved crocodilian in the world, a specialized river-dwelling fish-eater. The dire condition of the gharial reflects the tragedy of our rivers where we stand to not only lose other endangered taxa such as the Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica) but also the use of their waters for human consumption and other needs. CONSERVATION STATUS: Critically Endangered HABITAT: Clean rivers with sand banks. DISTRIBUTION: Only viable population in the National Chambal Sanctuary, spread across three States of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh in India. Small non-breeding populations exist in Son, Gandak, Hoogly and Ghagra rivers. Now extinct in Myanmar, Pakistan, Bhutan and Bangladesh. THREATS: The combined effects of dams, barrages, artificial embankments, change in river course, pollution, sand-mining, ri...

 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES (B) MAMMALS: 1. The Pygmy hog The Pygmy hog The Pygmy hog (Porcula salvania) is the world’s smallest wild pig, with adults weighing only 8 kg. This species constructs a nest throughout the year. It is one of the most useful indicators of management status of grassland habitats. The grasslands where the pygmy hog resides are crucial for the survival of other endangered species such as Indian rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis ), swamp deer ( Cervus duvauceli ), wild buffalo ( Bubalus arnee ), hispid hare ( Caprolagus hispidus ), Bengal florican ( Eupodotis bengalensis ) and swamp francolin ( Francolinus gularis ). In 1996, a captive-breeding programme of the species was initiated in Assam, and some hogs have been reintroduced in Sonai Rupai area also in 2009. CONSERVATION STATUS: Endangered HABITAT: Relatively undisturbed tall ‘terai’ grasslands. DISTRIBUTION: Formerly, the species was more widely distributed along the southern Himalayan foothills but ...

 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES (A) BIRDS: 5. BENGAL FLORICAN (Houbaropsis bengalensis) Bengal Florican Bengal Florican is a rare bustard species that is very well known for its mating dance. Among the tall grasslands, secretive males advertise their territories by springing from the ground and fl itting in the air to and fro. CONSERVATION STATUS: Critically Endangered HABITAT: Grasslands sometimes intersperesd with scrublands.  DISTRIBUTION: Native to only 3 countries in the world - Cambodia, India and Nepal. In India, it occurs in 3 States namely Uttar Pradesh, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. THREATS: Ongoing conversion of the bird’s grassland habitat for various purposes including agriculture is mainly responsible for its population decline. ALSO READ: Vultures

 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES (A) BIRDS:  4. VULTURES Vultures Out of nine species of vultures, population of three species ( White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis , Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris and Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus ) have declined by 99%. Vultures keep the environment clean, by scavenging on animal carcasses. The decline in vulture populations has associated disease risks including increased risk of spread of rabies and anthrax, besides adversely impacting the observance of last rites by the Parsis in the tower of silence. Varying vultures have different conservation statuses. The three species ( White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis , Slender-billed Vulture   Gyps tenuirostris and Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus ) are now classified as critically endangered. Long-billed Vulture Slender-billed Vulture White-backed Vulture Habitat: Forests, habitation, villages etc. Distribution: Across India. Threats: A major threat to vultures is the...

 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES (A) BIRDS: 3. WHITE-BELLIED HERON  (Ardea insignis) White-bellied Heron It is is an extremely rare bird found in five or six sites in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, one or two sites in Bhutan, and a few in Myanmar. It is inherently rare, and populations have never been known to be very high. The white-bellied heron is a large bird with a height of 127 cm. Its wingspan is estimated to be over 200 cm. The back and the long neck are dark grey in color. The belly plumage is whitish. The bill is large and black in color. CONSERVATION STATUS: Critically Endangered HABITAT: Rivers with sand or gravel bars or inland lakes. DISTRIBUTION: Bhutan and north-east India to the hills of Bangladesh and north Myanmar. THREATS: Loss and degradation of lowland forest and wetlands through direct exploitation and disturbance. Also Read: The Forest Owlet

 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES (A) BIRDS: 2. The Forest Owlet  (Heteroglaux blewitti) The Forest Owlet They are an exclusive species to India and can only be found there in tiny areas of forest. In the 1880s, the bird was first discovered. After then, nobody brought up these birds at all for almost a century. The cavity is used by the forest owlets to hide their prey. It is known as cashing. When not sighted for decades, posters were printed and Salim Ali, the premier ornithologist of India made a public appeal to look for the bird. After 113 long years, in 1997, the owlet was rediscovered and reappeared on the list of Indian birds. CONSERVATION STATUS: Endangered Habitat: Dry decidous forest Distribution: South Madhya Pradesh, in north-west Maharashtra and north-central Maharashtra. Threats: Logging operations, burning and cutting of trees damage roosting and nesting trees of the Forest Owlet. Also Read: The Jerdon's Courser 

 PART XXII SHORT TITLE, COMMENCEMENT, AND AUTHORITATIVE TEXT IN HINDI AND REPEALS 393. Short title.— This Constitution may be called the Constitution of India. 394. Commencement.— This article and articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392 and 393 shall come into force at once, and the remaining provisions of this Constitution shall come into force on the twenty-sixth day of January, 1950, which day is referred to in this Constitution as the commencement of this Constitution. 394A. Authoritative text in the Hindi language.— (1) The President shall cause to be published under his authority,—      (a) the translation of this Constitution in the Hindi language, signed by the members of the Constituent Assembly, with such modifications as may be necessary to bring it in conformity with the language, style and terminology adopted in the authoritative texts of Central Acts in the Hindi language, and incorporating therein all the amendments of this C...

 PART XXI TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS  377. Provisions as to Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.— The Auditor-General of India holding office immediately before the commencement of this Constitution shall, unless he has elected otherwise, become on such commencement the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India and shall thereupon be entitled to such salaries and to such rights in respect of leave of absence and pension as are provided for under clause (3) of article 148 in respect of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India and be entitled to continue to hold office until the expiration of his term of office as determined under the provisions which were applicable to him immediately before such commencement. 378. Provisions as to Public Service Commissions.— (1) The members of the Public Service Commission for the Dominion of India holding office immediately before the commencement of this Constitution shall, unless they have elected otherwise, bec...

 PART XXI TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS 372A. Power of the President to adapt laws.— (1) For the purposes of bringing the provisions of any law in force in India or in any part thereof, immediately before the commencement of the Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956, into accord with the provisions of this Constitution as amended by that Act, the President may by order made before the first day of November, 1957, make such adaptations and modifications of the law, whether by way of repeal or amendment, as may be necessary or expedient, and provide that the law shall, as from such date as may be specified in the order, have effect subject to the adaptations and modifications so made, and any such adaptation or modification shall not be questioned in any court of law. (2) Nothing in clause (1) shall be deemed to prevent a competent Legislature or other competent authority from repealing or amending any law adapted or modified by the President under the said clau...

 PART XXI TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS 371G. Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.— Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution,—      (a) no Act of Parliament in respect of—           (i) religious or social practices of the Mizos,           (ii) Mizo customary law and procedure,           (iii) administration of civil and criminal justice involving decisions according to Mizo customary law,           (iv) ownership and transfer of land, shall apply to the State of Mizoram unless the Legislative Assembly of the State of Mizoram by a resolution so decides: Provided that nothing in this clause shall apply to any Central Act in force in the Union territory of Mizoram immediately before the commencement of the Constitution (Fifty-third Amendment) Act, 1986;      (b) the Legislative Assembly of the State of Mizoram shall...

 PART XXI TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS 371E. Establishment of Central University in Andhra Pradesh.— Parliament may by law provide for the establishment of a University in the State of Andhra Pradesh. 371F. Special provisions with respect to the State of Sikkim.— Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution,—      (a) the Legislative Assembly of the State of Sikkim shall consist of not less than thirty members;      (b) as from the date of commencement of the Constitution (Thirty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1975 (hereafter in this article referred to as the appointed day)—           (i) the Assembly for Sikkim formed as a result of the elections held in Sikkim in April, 1974 with thirty-two members elected in the said elections (hereinafter referred to as the sitting members) shall be deemed to be the Legislative Assembly of the State of Sikkim duly constituted under this Constitution;         ...

  PART XXI TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS 371B. Special provision with respect to the State of Assam.— Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, the President may, by order made with respect to the State of Assam, provide for the constitution and functions of a committee of the Legislative Assembly of the State consisting of members of that Assembly elected from the tribal areas specified in Part I of the table appended to paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule and such number of other members of that Assembly as may be specified in the order and for the modifications to be made in the rules of procedure of that Assembly for the constitution and proper functioning of such committee. 371C. Special provision with respect to the State of Manipur.— (1) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, the President may, by order made with respect to the State of Manipur, provide for the constitution and functions of a committee of the Legislative Assembly of the State con...

 PART XXI TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS 371A. Special provision with respect to the State of Nagaland.— (1)Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution,—      (a) no Act of Parliament in respect of—           (i) religious or social practices of the Nagas,           (ii) Naga customary law and procedure,           (iii) administration of civil and criminal justice involving decisions according to Naga customary law,           (iv) ownership and transfer of land and its resources,  shall apply to the State of Nagaland unless the Legislative Assembly of Nagaland by a resolution so decides;      (b) the Governor of Nagaland shall have special responsibility with respect to law and order in the State of Nagaland for so long as in his opinion internal disturbances occurring in the Naga Hills-Tuensang Area immediately before the formatio...

 PART XXI TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS 369. Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters in the State List as if they were matters in the Concurrent List.— Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament shall, during a period of five years from the commencement of this Constitution, have power to make laws with respect to the following matters as if they were enumerated in the Concurrent List, namely:—      (a) trade and commerce within a State in, and the production, supply and distribution of, cotton and woollen textiles, raw cotton (including ginned cotton and unginned cotton or kapas ), cotton seed, paper (including newsprint), food-stuffs (including edible oilseeds and oil), cattle fodder (including oil-cakes and other concentrates), coal (including coke and derivatives of coal), iron, steel and mica;      (b) offences against laws with respect to any of the matters mentioned in clause (a)...